📚 Astrodynamic Constants & Typical Orbits

Earth constants for orbit design · typical orbit quick reference

Earth & Time Constants

Constant常数Symbol符号Value数值
Gravitational parameter地球引力常数μ398 600.4418 km³/s²
Equatorial radius赤道半径R_E6 378.137 km
Mean radius平均半径–6 371.0 km
Oblateness (2nd zonal)二阶带谐(扁率项)J₂1.082 626 68 × 10⁻³
Earth rotation rate地球自转速率ω_E7.292 115 9 × 10⁻⁵ rad/s
Sidereal day恒星日–86 164.0905 s (23 h 56 m 4.1 s)
Solar day太阳日–86 400 s
Tropical year回归年–365.2422 d
Mean sun rate (SSO node rate)平太阳速率(SSO 交点速率)Ω̇_sun+0.985 65 °/day
GEO radius / altitudeGEO 半径 / 高度–42 164.2 km / 35 786.0 km
Escape velocity (surface)地表逃逸速度–11.186 km/s
Solar constant太阳常数–1 361 W/m²
Critical inclination临界倾角–63.435° / 116.565°
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Typical Orbits

Orbit轨道Altitude高度Inclination倾角Period周期Typical use典型用途
VLEO250–450 kmany任意89–93 minHigh-res imaging, drag-compensated高分辨率成像,需阻力补偿
ISS~420 km51.6°92.9 minCrewed station, microgravity载人空间站、微重力
LEO / SSO500–800 km97.4–98.6°94.6–100.9 minEarth observation, constant local time对地观测,地方时恒定
Broadband LEO低轨宽带500–1200 km53–87.9°95–109 minComms megaconstellations通信巨型星座
MEO / GPS20 180 km55°11 h 58 mNavigation (GPS/BeiDou MEO/Galileo)导航(GPS/北斗 MEO/伽利略)
GTO250 × 35 786 km6–28.5°10.5 hTransfer to GEOGEO 转移轨道
GEO35 786 km~0°23 h 56 mComms, broadcast, weather通信、广播、气象
Molniya600 × 39 750 km63.4°11 h 58 mHigh-latitude comms, frozen perigee高纬通信,近地点冻结
Tundra24 470 × 46 340 km63.4°23 h 56 mRegional high-latitude service区域高纬服务
Graveyard坟墓轨道GEO + ≥ 235 km~0°> 23 h 56 mGEO end-of-life disposalGEO 寿命末期处置
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📖 How to use

  1. All OrbitTools calculators use exactly these constants, so results are consistent across tools.OrbitTools 所有计算器均使用本页常数,各工具结果保持一致。
  2. Use the typical-orbit rows as starting points, then refine altitude/inclination in the design tools.典型轨道各行可作为设计起点,再用各设计工具细化高度/倾角。

Notes

Values follow WGS-84 / EGM-96 conventions as commonly used in mission analysis (Vallado, SMAD). The critical inclination and the sun-rate are exact consequences of the J2 secular equations — see the J2 Perturbations tool. GEO altitude is quoted above the equator; the graveyard offset follows the IADC formula for typical spacecraft (≈ 235 km + area-to-mass term).

说明

数值采用任务分析常用的 WGS-84 / EGM-96 约定(Vallado、SMAD)。临界倾角与太阳速率由 J2 长期方程精确导出——见 J2 摄动工具。GEO 高度为赤道上空值;坟墓轨道抬高量按 IADC 公式(≈ 235 km + 面质比项)。